Understanding China (Part 1): The Dawn of a Great Civilization

Various civilizations have ruled the global scene throughout history. The United States dominated the 20th century, whereas Great Britain dominated the 19th. Many analysts, however, think that the 21st century will be known as the Chinese century. China is a major global actor due to its impressive economic, technical, and geopolitical achievements during the last 50 years. International relations (IR) professionals are faced with a basic challenge as China continues to rise: What will the world look like when China is the only superpower?
It is necessary to examine China’s past to comprehend its present and forecast its future. Over time, civilizations change, and China’s political and strategic culture has strong roots in its long past. Unfortunately, Western viewpoints frequently dominate worldwide debate on China, leaving little opportunity for a true appreciation of Chinese culture within its own historical and cultural context. Examining China’s past, present, and future is the goal of this *Understanding China* series. Beginning in the prehistoric period and spanning the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties—the cornerstones of China’s political and cultural development—this first episode explores the beginnings of Chinese civilization.
Chinese civilization’s history dates back to the Paleolithic Period. According to some Chinese academics, the origins of human civilization can even be traced back to modern-day China. However, traditional literature and oral histories were the only sources of knowledge on a large portion of early Chinese history for a long time. According to these accounts, China’s history started with mythical monarchs who brought essential elements of civilization, including dress, agriculture, government, and social order, between 4000 and 2700 BCE. These anecdotes helped shape China’s historical identity, although more recent archeological findings have shown that the area was inhabited by people long before. The bones of the Peking Man, an ancient hominid whose remains were found in the 1920s close to present-day Beijing, are among the most important discoveries. Early human predecessors lived in the area for hundreds of thousands of years, as evidenced by Yuanmou Man (who lived 1.7 million years ago) and Peking Man. These early inhabitants represented a significant turning point in human evolution as they were adept at utilizing fire and crafting stone implements.
There has long been discussion about whether the Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BCE) was a fiction or a historical reality. Archaeological investigations in the 1960s and 1970s revealed relics, bronze works, and old tombs that clearly show the Xia was a real dynasty. Between Stone Age societies and an organized civilization, it acted as a link. Known for his ability to regulate the destructive Yellow River floods, Yu the Great established the Xia Dynasty. In addition to establishing the hereditary succession system, which served as the cornerstone of China’s dynasty government, he gained widespread acclaim for his commitment to flood management. While most people continued to live in rural areas, the Xia kings ruled from urban centers. However, Jie, the final Xia emperor, gained bad reputation for his oppressive reign and lavish lifestyle. As a result of his harsh rules,  Tang, the father of the Shang Dynasty, finally ended his rule.
A highly developed and structured society, Chinese civilization began to take shape during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE). The existence of the Shang Dynasty is known because of oracle bones, which are ancient inscriptions used for divination. in contrast to the Xia, who left behind little historical evidence. The Shang people’s political, religious, and economic lives may be inferred from these bones. Writing, religion, administration, and bronze metallurgy all advanced significantly in China under the Shang. While the earliest Chinese script appeared and developed into the complex character system still in use today, elaborate metal weaponry, tools, and ceremonial vessels demonstrated their technological prowess. The Shang created the practice of ancestor worship because they believed that their departed ancestors had supernatural abilities and could affect the living world. They worshipped several gods, with Shangti being the most important of them. With a monarch at the head and noble families, warriors, and craftspeople at his side, the dynasty created a hierarchical society. Nevertheless, ruler Zhou, the final Shang ruler, gained notoriety for his brutality and extravagant spending despite these accomplishments. As a result of his mismanagement, the Zhou Dynasty emerged as a new power.
After leading an uprising against the Shang in 1046 BCE, King Wu of Zhou vanquished King Zhou in the Battle of Muye, establishing the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE). One of the most important ideas in Chinese history was first presented by the Zhou: the Mandate of Heaven. This theory defended the emperors’ reign by claiming that heaven gave them the authority to rule according to moral principles and sound government. Heaven’s mandate would be withdrawn if a ruler became corrupt or tyrannical, which would result in the ruler’s demise. For millennia, Chinese political theory was based on this concept. Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE) was an era of stability and cultural advancement, whereas Eastern Zhou (771–256 BCE) was characterized by internal strife that resulted in the Warring States era and the Spring and Autumn Period. China saw the growth of renowned thinkers like Laozi and Confucius during this time, as well as the advancement of iron smelting and the evolution of warfare, which included the widespread usage of chariots. The Zhou’s intellectual and cultural heritage helped to form the basis of Chinese civilization, even though internal conflicts ultimately caused it to wane.
China’s extensive and continuous civilization was built on the foundations of the early dynasties. Gaining an understanding of China’s ancient history is essential to understanding its current political and strategic culture. China’s historical experiences, cultural customs, and philosophical underpinnings will be crucial for analyzing its future policies and governance as it continues to rise on the international scene.
The next Understanding China episode will cover the tumultuous Warring States Period and the rise of the Qin Dynasty, which brought China together under Qin Shi Huang as its first emperor.  In the next part, we will also try to understand the significance of the Spring and Autumn periods in ancient China.