Aristotle: The Philosopher Who Changed the World
- Aristotle emphasized the importance of virtue, proposing that happiness stems from cultivating virtues like courage, temperance, and wit.
- He believed tragedy's purpose is catharsis, helping individuals confront emotions like fear and pity.
- Aristotle revolutionized rhetoric, teaching how to persuade and engage others effectively in debates.
Aristotle was born around 384 BC in the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia, where his father was the royal doctor. He grew up to be arguably the most influential philosopher ever, with modest nicknames like The Master and simply The Philosopher. His first big job was tutoring Alexander the Great, who soon after went out and conquered the known world. Aristotle then headed off to Athens, worked with Plato for a bit, and then branched out on his own. He founded a little school called the Lyceum, and French secondary schools, the Lycées, are named in honor of this venture. Aristotle enjoyed walking while teaching and discussing ideas, and his followers were nicknamed Peripatetics, meaning “the Wanderers.” His many books are actually lecture notes.
Aristotle was fascinated by how many things actually work. For instance, why does a chick grow well in one place and hardly at all in another? Most importantly, he was interested in what makes a human life and a whole society go well. For Aristotle, philosophy was about practical wisdom. Here are four big philosophical questions he addressed:
1. What Makes People Happy?
In Nicomachean Ethics (named after his son Nicomachus, who edited the book), Aristotle set himself the task of identifying the factors that lead people to have a good life—or not. He suggested that good and successful people possess distinct virtues, and we should get better at identifying them so we can nurture them in ourselves and honor them in others. Aristotle zeroed in on eleven virtues: courage, temperance, liberality, magnificence, magnanimity, pride, patience, truthfulness, wittiness, friendliness, and modesty.
He also observed that every virtue seems to exist in the middle of two vices, occupying what he called the “golden mean” between two extremes of character. For example, in Book 4 of his Ethics, under the charming title Conversational Virtues, Wit, Buffoonery, and Boorishness, Aristotle explored how people can be better or worse at conversation. He argued that the virtuous person is witty but tactful. A fascinating moment in his work is when he draws up a table comparing the extremes of virtues: too little, too much, and just right. While change in behavior is not instantaneous, Aristotle believed that moral goodness is the result of habit. With time, practice, and encouragement, change is possible. Aristotle thought that people lacking virtue should be understood as unfortunate rather than wicked, needing better guidance rather than punishment.
2. What is Tragedy for?
At the time, tragedy was the blockbuster art form in Athens, with playwrights like Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles. Aristotle wrote a manual for writing great plays, Poetics, which is packed with tips, such as using Peripeteia (a change in fortune) and Anagnorisis (a moment of dramatic revelation). Aristotle believed that tragedy has a deeper purpose—it is meant to serve as catharsis, a kind of emotional cleansing. Tragedy reminds us that terrible things can happen to decent people, and we should have more compassion for those whose actions go disastrously wrong. It helps cleanse us of exaggerated fears and a lack of pity. Tragedy, in Aristotle’s view, makes profound truths about life stick in our minds, reminding us that a small flaw can lead to a whole life unraveling.
3. What Are Friends For?
In Books 8 and 9 of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle identifies three kinds of friendship. The first type is friendship based on mutual pleasure, where each person seeks fun. The second is strategic acquaintanceship, where people take pleasure in each other’s company only because they hope to benefit from it. The third type, true friendship, is based on mutual care, where each person cares for the other as much as they care for themselves. The sorrows of a true friend are your sorrows, and their joys are yours. This kind of friendship makes you more vulnerable, but it is also strengthening as you expand beyond your own narrow worries and thoughts. In true friendship, you share virtues and cancel out each other’s defects, making it a central and enriching part of life.
4. How Can Ideas Cut Through in a Busy World?
Aristotle noticed that the best argument doesn’t always win the debate or the battle. He wanted to understand why this happens and what can be done about it. In Athens, many decisions were made in public meetings, often in the agora (town square), where rhetoric played a huge role in influencing popular opinion. Aristotle invented the art of rhetoric—the art of persuasion. He wanted thoughtful, well-intentioned people to learn how to be persuasive and reach those who don’t already agree with them. Aristotle emphasized recognizing and acknowledging people’s emotions, addressing fears, and understanding their pride or embarrassment. He also noted the importance of humor and illustrations to keep the audience engaged.
Today, philosophy may not seem like the most practical activity, but Aristotle’s work reminds us that we need to pay more attention to practical wisdom. His insights into virtue, tragedy, friendship, and rhetoric continue to shape our thinking and behavior in profound ways.
