Understanding China(VII): Admiral Zheng He and the Legacy of the Ming Dynasty

In this particular episode, we discussed the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) of imperial China from multiple perspectives. Imperial China witnessed numerous rises and falls throughout its history. A common pattern in these shifts was that many movements and rebellions were instigated by peasants. Other contributing factors—such as ecological disasters and internal divisions among various factions of society and the government apparatus—facilitated the success of these revolts.

Prior to Ming rule, indigenous Chinese were marginalized under Mongol dominance during the Yuan Dynasty. The peasants were the most affected, as their lands were seized by usurpers, turning them into virtual slaves on their own soil. This deprivation, combined with devastating natural disasters that led to droughts and widespread economic collapse, created the conditions ripe for a peasant rebellion.

During this turbulent period, a man from a poor peasant family rose to prominence and ultimately became the emperor of China, laying the foundations of the Ming Dynasty. Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398) initially worked with the Red Turban Movement alongside his rebel group in Anhui province. Through relentless struggle, he established himself as a central Chinese leader and regained control of Nanjing in 1364. Four years later, he captured Beijing in 1368, expelling the last Mongol emperor. Rather than making Beijing his capital, Zhu chose Nanjing and declared himself emperor under the title “Hongwu.”

The emperor’s first and foremost priority was to overcome the dire economic situation. Reviving the economy depended largely on revitalizing the agricultural sector. Hongwu took significant steps in this regard. Special attention was given to improving irrigation: damaged canals were repaired, and land confiscated during the Mongol period was redistributed among farmers. The most severely affected areas were exempted from taxes, and between 1371 and 1379, nearly three times more land than before was cultivated. Agricultural innovation was encouraged, and a massive tree plantation campaign helped support the development of a formidable maritime fleet.

Furthermore, major administrative reforms were introduced. The previously marginalized native Chinese were appointed to key government positions through a strict, merit-based examination system. Power was centralized in the emperor’s hands as Hongwu grew increasingly suspicious of others. His suspicion culminated in the execution of Hu Weiyong in 1380—despite Hu’s role in helping him gain power. Hongwu died in 1398, passing the reins of the empire to his sixteen-year-old grandson.

During the Ming era, China achieved unprecedented glory thanks to its formidable maritime strength and rising prestige. Historically known as a land-focused civilization, China—under the Ming—embarked on an expansive maritime journey led by the eunuch Admiral Zheng He. Born into a Muslim family, Zheng He was castrated at a young age and brought to serve the royal household. There, he developed leadership skills and became close to a prince who later ascended to the throne and appointed Zheng as the head of the imperial fleet.

Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng He led seven maritime expeditions across the known world. Each mission comprised hundreds of ships and thousands of sailors. These voyages enhanced China’s prestige, introduced new ideas and gifts, and opened new trade routes. The Ming fleet was equipped with the most advanced technologies of the time, including navigational compasses and sophisticated rudder systems. Emperor Yongle expanded the tribute system to include regions far beyond China’s borders. Despite its massive size, the Chinese fleet—unlike its European counterparts—rarely interfered in the internal affairs of other nations.

Gavin Menzies, in his book 1421: The Year China Discovered America, claims that Chinese explorers reached America before the Europeans. It is also believed by some that Admiral Zheng He was the first to circumnavigate the globe, even navigating parts of the Arctic Ocean. The exact reasons for the sudden cessation of these sea voyages remain unclear, but many historians believe the expeditions became too costly and were therefore discontinued.

Like previous dynasties, Ming China faced numerous challenges that ultimately led to its decline. The empire experienced a severe economic crisis as tax revenues diminished. The centralized authority established by Hongwu weakened, especially in distant regions. Downsizing the civil service undermined the administrative grip over the empire. Over time, eunuchs—initially palace guards—gained significant political and military influence, further eroding the empire’s stability. Coastal piracy and nomadic invasions from the north gradually destabilized the Ming Dynasty, paving the way for the Manchus to rule China for the next three centuries.