Beyond Cunning: The Confucian Roots of Chinese Strategic Wisdom

Traditional Chinese stratagem, or 謀略 (Mou Lue), can be traced back to the Warring States Period (c. 475–221 BC) in ancient China. Most people, including scholars in China, hold the view that Mou Lue is purely Machiavellian in nature, with nothing related to ethics, philosophy, or virtue. In other words, the ends justify the means.

Furthermore, the legendary thinker Guiguzi, founder of the ancient School of Vertical Alliances and Horizontal Alliances (Zong Heng Jia, 縱橫家), or simply the School of Diplomacy, is commonly regarded as the founder of the discipline of Mou Lue. Guiguzi’s teachings were severely criticized by mainstream Confucians throughout Chinese history. His work, Guiguzi, was forbidden in China for a long time, even though many statesmen and officials studied it privately for its insights and practical wisdom.

In this article, I will argue that Mou Lue, or “stratagem,” originated from Confucian concepts and was further developed by thinkers and practitioners up to modern times in China. This approach is unconventional, but I hope it will encourage a more creative understanding of the discipline of Mou Lue for academic and practical purposes.

The Concept of Jing Quan

Jing (經)

According to Confucius, Jing means the “normal and constant way of living” or “the way that one is obliged to practice.” Later, the concept of Jing was associated with (禮) “Li,” which means the appropriate manners and rites for living, including the institutions practised during the Zhou Dynasty.

Following the use of the Six Classic Texts of Confucianism, known as the Six Classics (六經), the discipline of Classical Chinese Studies (經學, Jing Xue) was established. Consequently, Jing came to refer to the ideas and content of these classical texts.

Nevertheless, there is a common thread linking all these different meanings. Jing is a set of constant and common ways of living virtuously and appropriately in society. These ways range from simple manners to formal institutions in ancient China.

Quan (權)

For Confucius, Quan represents the final and highest phase of personal development. Even when a virtuous person follows Li, their development is incomplete unless they master Quan. Quan means the art of weighing circumstances.

A gentleman must weigh different circumstances and make appropriate decisions in human affairs. However, Confucius did not provide any specific rules or guidelines on how to exercise the art of Quan. It is very likely that he believed that if a gentleman cultivated a heart of (仁) “Ren,” or benevolence, he would naturally know how to apply the art of Quan.

The idea of Quan was also studied by other schools of thought. Contrary to Confucianism, (道家) Taoism emphasized the concept of (變) “Bian” (change) rather than Jing. The universe is not in a constant state but is changing continuously. There is no unchanging way.

Zhuang Zhou (莊周), a pioneer of Taoism, viewed Quan as more important than Jing in this changing world, advocating the concept of (權變) “Quan Bian” (weighing and change).

According to (墨家) Mohism, the practice of Quan is not related to specific ethical principles but is an art of making decisions or judgments after weighing different factors in a given situation. However, one must exercise this art rationally and consider the consequences.

The Legalist School (法家) also held that a ruler should practise Quan in political leadership and statecraft.

Tang Dynasty: The Treatise on the Art of Long and Short

During the Tang Dynasty (618–907), a scholar named Zhao Rui (趙蕤) wrote a book known as Zhan Duan Jing (The Treatise on the Art of Long and Short), discussing statecraft throughout history. The title of Chapter Three is Quan Bian (權變), or “Weighing and Change,” which presents two core ideas underlying the entire book.

First, everything in society and the state, including political theories, ethics, and institutions, develops gradually and eventually decays, leading to consequences that may be entirely opposite to its original beneficial purpose. This is known as the theory of Fan Zhi (反致), or “opposite return.” That is why another name for the book is (反經) Fan Jing, or “The Treatise of Opposition.”

Second, because everything changes, our approaches to statecraft should adapt to changing circumstances from time to time. There are no constant ethical principles applicable in every era. Apart from Confucian ideas, Taoist, Legalist, and other schools of thought can also be applied and combined in different situations. The reason is that ideas from any school of thought, when put into practice, may gradually decay and produce results opposite to their original intentions.

Third, the book advocates the art of contrary thinking. If an idea or perspective is right, its opposite may also be right. Furthermore, the two opposites form a dialectical whole. This idea is derived from the Yin-Yang philosophy of the I Ching (The Book of Changes).

Feng Dao: A Controversial Statesman

After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, China entered an age of chaos known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (五代十國) (907–979). During this period, there was a controversial statesman named Feng Dao (馮道). He served as prime minister under ten rulers across five dynasties. This seriously contravened the Confucian doctrine of loyalty. Consequently, Feng Dao was criticized by mainstream Confucians throughout history. However, it can be argued that his practical politics exhibited certain features of Quan Bian.

Firstly, Feng Dao shifted the focus of Confucian loyalty from the ruler to the state. This made a remarkable difference. The interests of the state were numerous, broad, and long-term, including the daily well-being of the people. This explains why he continued to serve under different rulers for the sake of political stability and the welfare of the people. His contributions to governance helped preserve Confucian ideals in the long run.

According to traditional Confucian teachings, or Jing, when a state is without Tao, meaning that it is in chaos and lacks virtue, a Confucian should withdraw from public service. Feng Dao’s insistence on serving in government clearly contravened Jing. In this context, he exercised the art of Quan by weighing all the circumstances and consequences of the period and ultimately deciding to sacrifice his own reputation to fulfil broader, long-term goals.

Secondly, he did not concern himself with criticism from others. This reflects the core idea of Yangmingism, discussed below. It highlights the importance of inwardness for a Confucian follower. When exercising the art of Jing Quan or Quan Bian, one must not be easily swayed by judgments from the outside world.

Song Dynasty: The School of Utility

During the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279), a Neo-Confucian school known as the School of Utility (事功學派) emerged. According to this school, virtue and utility are equally important. Utility means providing actual benefits to the people. To be a righteous person, one should also participate in politics and lead people towards their well-being.

This can be described as a realist school of Confucianism, in contrast to schools that focus on self-cultivation towards moral perfection. However, conflicts between virtue and utility may arise from time to time, and this is where the art of Quan Bian comes into play.

To justify Quan Bian, the School of Utility turned to the study of history. History records actual events that happened in the past. Through historical study, one can learn how to adapt to actual circumstances by balancing virtue and utility. Jing (經) and Shi (史), meaning history, should be integrated rather than treated as separate fields.

An interesting work known as Ba Mian Feng (八面鋒), literally meaning “Sharpness of Eight Faces,” was a collection of short articles written by prominent scholars associated with the School of Utility. Its content includes diverse stratagems and principles of statecraft, illustrated through historical examples. Interestingly, this book became a study manual for students preparing to sit for the official examinations.

There are two notable features of this work. Firstly, ideas from the Legalist School were incorporated. Secondly, it occasionally advised statesmen to exercise the art of Quan Bian to make correct decisions and cope with changing circumstances.

Yangmingism

During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the scholar-statesman Wang Yangming (王陽明) founded the Neo-Confucian School of Mind/Heart Philosophy (心學學派). According to this philosophy, truth and virtue cannot be found solely in the external world. We should turn inward in search of virtue. Our mind or heart is the source of the principles governing the cosmos. Furthermore, we acquire knowledge of the cosmos and the world through practice. Practice and knowledge are two sides of the same coin.

His ideas were revolutionary. It is not sufficient for a person to read the Confucian classics to understand Jing (經), since these classics serve only as references. When making the right decision, one needs to look into one’s own heart or mind and consult one’s conscience.

Regarding the art of Quan (權), Wang adopted a similar approach. A person needs to use the mind, heart, and conscience to guide decisions. There is no need to seek objective criteria and standards outside oneself to weigh circumstances. As a result, Jing and Quan are integrated under the framework of the mind and heart.

This reflects the basic approach of Feng Dao, the great practitioner of Quan Bian mentioned above. We should not allow the external world to judge us too easily. However, this does not mean that we should withdraw from the world. When engaging with the external world, we should use our heart and mind to do what is right according to our conscience, regardless of the judgments and reactions of public opinion. The subject takes precedence over the object. The mind and heart embody the Tao. A Confucian should follow the Tao as the ultimate guide to judgment.

Zhang Zhidong: An Expert Practitioner of Quan Bian

Zhang Zhidong (張之洞) was a prominent statesman and official during the late Qing Dynasty (1636–1912). He lived during a critical period when China entered the modern age and began engaging with the industrial nations of the West.

During his political career, he faced many challenges but remained receptive to reforms and changes. Zhang wanted to preserve imperial rule and tradition while also incorporating new ideas, particularly Western ideas, institutions, and technology, to make China great again.

After studying the I Ching, or The Book of Changes, Zhang concluded that it was essential for a person to understand things thoroughly and comprehensively. This capability is known as Tong (通). If a person cannot understand something from all angles and in depth, they have not attained the state of Tong.

Zhang’s appreciation of Tong may be highly relevant to his practice of Quan Bian in statecraft and politics. Furthermore, the I Ching states: (窮則變，變則通，通則久) “When a thing develops fully, it needs to change; if it changes, Tong can be achieved; if Tong is achieved, the situation will improve and endure for a long time.”

Tong, in this context, means that blockages have been removed and everything can move smoothly, allowing problems to be solved.

From the above analysis, Zhang’s approach to Quan Bian can be understood in three steps:

1. Explore, read, and fully understand ideas, even when they initially appear contrary to tradition and Confucian Jing (通, Tong).
2. Make changes accordingly (變, Bian).
3. Facilitate reforms and solve problems in a way that produces lasting improvements (久, Jiu).

Guiguzi and Confucianism

Guiguzi (鬼谷子) was the founder of the School of Diplomacy (縱橫家) and a pioneer in the discipline of Mou Lue (謀略), or traditional Chinese stratagem. Throughout Chinese history, Guiguzi and the followers of his school were criticized by mainstream scholars and officials. They were accused of being immoral and of relying on tactics and cunning tricks to achieve selfish goals. This is a complete misconception.

The book Guiguzi (鬼谷子) was the primary source of his ideas. The first chapter lays down essential concepts in the following two passages:

1. 昔稽古聖人，之在天地間也

“In ancient times, the sage existed between Heaven and Earth.”

A sage is an ideal and virtuous person, similar to an almost perfect Confucian gentleman. Confucius and Mencius were also known as sages. Heaven refers to the natural tendencies of the human heart. These tendencies are shaped by the cosmos. In other words, they are similar to the Way, or Tao, of the cosmos. This also mirrors the philosophy of mind and heart associated with Yangmingism, as mentioned above.

Earth, on the other hand, refers to the actual circumstances of human affairs and relationships. Hence, according to Guiguzi, a sage should understand Heaven while also balancing the actual circumstances and facts before making a decision.

2. 故聖人之在天下也，自古至今，其道一也。變化無窮，各有所歸。

“Thus, the sage’s Way in the world has remained one from ancient times to the present. Changes are limitless, and each change has its own destination.”

This passage clearly suggests that a sage should uphold the Tao through different approaches to cope with change.

It can therefore be argued that Guiguzi’s ideas do not entirely conflict with Confucianism. He simply places greater emphasis on the practice of Quan and Bian rather than Jing.

Sun Tzu and Jing Quan

The first chapter of Sun Tzu’s (孫子) The Art of War explicitly refers to Jing and Quan as follows:

故經之以五事

“Hence, one should assess it according to five fundamental considerations.”

After explaining the five considerations, the text states:

因利而制權也

“One should exercise Quan according to the advantages presented by the circumstances.”

Therefore, Sun Tzu’s thought was also influenced by Confucianism.

From Jing Quan to 道術 (Dao Shu), or the Art of Tao

From the above discussion, we can see that Confucianism played a significant role in shaping the wisdom of stratagem in Chinese history. After studying the Book of Changes, Confucian thinkers understood that changes in the universe and human affairs are inevitable. All concrete principles, ethics, and doctrines, when applied rigidly, may lead to absurd and ineffective consequences.

Under normal circumstances, adherence to Jing is ethical and desirable. However, when circumstances change, a righteous gentleman should exercise Quan for the benefit of others. In such situations, one may need to set aside the concrete requirements stated in Jing and make decisions according to whether they conform to the ultimate Tao. This approach is termed Fan Jing He Dao (反經合道), meaning “contrary to Jing but in compliance with Tao.”

Gradually, the concept of 道術 (Dao Shu), or the “Art of Tao,” developed. This refers to any means, approach, method, policy, or tactic that conforms to the Tao and addresses challenges and changes in human affairs.

However, this term was rarely used explicitly in the official and mainstream discourse of Confucian followers, including scholars and statesmen. On the other hand, followers of other schools of thought, particularly the School of Diplomacy led by the mysterious Guiguzi, were also influenced by the concept of Dao Shu.

Throughout China’s long history, different thinkers and practitioners developed a unique discipline known as 謀略 (Mou Lue). The term is commonly understood to mean “wit, tricks, and the use of any means to achieve results, build power, or solve problems in response to changing circumstances, without regard to any ultimate principles.”

In my view, this understanding is fundamentally mistaken because Mou Lue, on the surface, is closer to the field of (術) “Shu,” which focuses on meeting challenges arising from changing circumstances. Consequently, those who study Mou Lue may easily distance themselves from the concept of 道 (Tao).

Conclusion

I would like to offer a concise conclusion. Confucianism played a foundational role in shaping the development of Chinese strategic wisdom. Inspired by the Book of Changes, Confucian thinkers recognized the need to adapt to changing circumstances, even when doing so meant departing from established ethics, dogmas, and principles. This is the origin of 經權 (Jing Quan).

However, there is an ultimate constraint and guiding principle for exercising the art of Quan: the supreme wisdom of Tao. This gave rise to 道術 (Dao Shu). Influenced implicitly by the concept of Dao Shu, thinkers and practitioners gradually developed the discipline of 謀略 (Mou Lue) throughout Chinese history.

Nevertheless, most people, including scholars, have rarely recognized the connection between Dao Shu and the art of Mou Lue.

By way of analogy, 經權 (Jing Quan) is the root, 道術 (Dao Shu) is the trunk, and 謀略 (Mou Lue) comprises the branches. The entire tree represents Chinese strategic wisdom.

Mou Lue without Tao is not true Mou Lue.

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